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Let’s assume you were born in Singapore in the early 20th century. You would have started your life as a resident of the British Straits Settlements. Later, you would have become a resident under Japanese rule, and shortly after World War II, you would have once again become a resident of a British colony. In 1963, you would have become a citizen of Malaysia, and by 1965, a citizen of Singapore—all without ever moving from your birthplace.
 
However, for someone like me, who was born in Japan at the end of the 20th century, or for you, who may have been born in the 21st century, it is likely that we will remain Japanese citizens from birth until death unless we choose to emigrate and acquire citizenship elsewhere. The several decades between the late 19th century and the mid-20th century were an exceptional period when the political landscape of the world changed dramatically.
 
The transition from colonization to the independence of colonies—decolonization—was marked by many uncertainties. The way the nearly 200 countries we see today were divided could have turned out quite differently had just a few things changed. Many of the states we take for granted as natural entities are, in reality, fragile constructs that might never have come into existence if certain political, economic, or social factors had been slightly different. Likewise, history is full of "potential states" that never came to be.
 
There are countless factors that shaped the formation of states, and no researcher can explain them all. This book focuses on one particularly significant factor: natural resources, specifically oil. Just as Columbus set out on his voyages partly in search of gold, resources have been a key motivation for colonial expansion and overseas ventures. Natural resources—especially oil, which is crucial in the modern world—were essential elements of colonial rule. It stands to reason that they must have played a significant role in the process of decolonization as well.
 
By analyzing countries such as Brunei in Southeast Asia and Qatar and Bahrain in the Middle East, using British colonial administrative records, an intriguing historical pattern emerges. Oil in the colonial era enabled small protectorates (colonial units where local rulers were maintained under indirect rule) to achieve independence without merging with their surrounding territories. This process led to the creation of states that would otherwise not exist. Colonial powers, concerned that a proliferation of small states would destabilize international order and weaken their own influence, often sought to merge small colonies into larger, more stable units before granting them independence. However, in areas where abundant oil revenue allowed local rulers to wield significant power, merging with others was seen as a disadvantage. By leveraging oil as a bargaining tool, these rulers were able to negotiate and secure independent statehood from both colonial powers and neighboring states. In this sense, oil functioned as a "weapon of the weak."
 
Although this book is grounded in the fields of international relations and comparative politics, its examination of historical records to explore the role of oil in shaping states in the Middle East and Southeast Asia will appeal to students and general readers interested in area studies, history, and natural resources.
 

(Written by MUKOYAMA Naosuke, Associate Professor, Institute for Future Initiatives / 2025)

Table of Contents

Related Info

Award:
The 46th ‘Institute of Developing Economies’ Award for the Promotion of Studies on Developing Countries  (IDE-JETRO  2025)

 
Japanese version:
Mukoyama Naosuke “Sekiyu ga Kokka o Tsukurutoki  (published by Keio University Press  Jan 30, 2025)

 
Interview:
Hosted by Miranda Melcher  (New Books Network  June 5, 2024)

 
Book reviews:
Reviewed by Tommy Sheng Hao Chai  (Cambridge Review of International Affairs  July 1, 2025)

 
Reviewed by Hussam Hussein  (Perspectives on Politics  May 16, 2025)

 
Reviewed by Pino Andrade, Mauricio  (Environmental Politics, Volume 34, Issue 5  January 2025)


 
Reviewed by Johanne Marie Skov  (International Affairs, Volume 100, Issue 5,  September 2024)

 
Related blogposts:
Mukoyama, Naosuke. “Oil in the Imperial Periphery: Brunei’s Unlikely Path to Independence.” Phenomenal World, Feb 13, 2025.

 
Mukoyama, Naosuke. “Late to the Party? Decolonisation, Natural Resources, and the Making of States.” Oxford Martin School Changing Global Orders Blog, June 7, 2024.

 
Related research:
Mukoyama, Naosuke. 2023. “Colonial Oil and State-Making: The Separate Independence of Qatar and Bahrain.” Comparative Politics, 55(4), 573-595. 

 
Mukoyama, Naosuke. 2020. “Colonial Origins of the Resource Curse: Endogenous Sovereignty and Authoritarianism in Brunei.” Democratization, 27(2), 224-242.  

 
Events:
RCAST Security Seminar, Fueling Sovereignty: Colonial Oil and the Creation of Unlikely States  (Division of Global Security and Energy Transition (GSET), RCAST, 春雨直播app, RCAST Open Laboratory for Emergence Strategies (ROLES), RCAST, 春雨直播app  Dec 12, 2024)

 
Book talk: Naosuke Mukoyama’s "Fueling Sovereignty"   (Queen Mary's Centre for the Study of Race, Class and Empire  October 24, 2024)

 
Fueling Sovereignty; Colonial Oil and the Creation of Unlikely States
with Naosuke Mukoyama  (Political Studies Association  July 6, 2024)

 

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